Key Ideas

1. Substance: According to Spinoza, substance is the fundamental concept in his metaphysics. It is that which exists in itself and is conceived through itself, meaning it does not depend on anything else for its existence or conception.
2. God or Nature: Spinoza uses the terms God and Nature interchangeably to refer to the ultimate substance, which encompasses everything in the universe.
3. Attributes: Attributes are the essential aspects or qualities of substance. Spinoza posits that there are an infinite number of attributes, but humans can only comprehend two: Extension (physical aspects) a....
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